Methods for efficient production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in Rhodosporidium and Rhodotorula species

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the field of fungal biotechnology, more particularly to genetic engineering methods for the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fungal hosts selected from  Rhodosporidium  and  Rhodotorula  genera. The present invention further relates to a modified fungal host cell having reduced native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD 1) enzyme activity, and methods for producing omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and triacylglycerides, by growing said fungal host cell under suitable conditions.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a national stage filing under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of PCT/SG2015/050273, filed on 21 Aug. 2015, which in turn claims the benefit of priority to and the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/047,300 filed 8 Sep. 2014. Each application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

SEQUENCE SUBMISSION

The present application is being filed along with a Sequence Listing in electronic format. The Sequence Listing is entitled 2577237PCTSequenceListing.txt, created on 2 Jul. 2015 and is 321 kb is size. The information in the electronic format of the Sequence Listing is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of fungal biotechnology, more particularly to genetic engineering methods for the production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in fungal hosts selected from Rhodospordium and Rhodotorula genera.

The publications and other materials used herein to illuminate the background of the invention or provide additional details respecting the practice, are incorporated by reference, and for convenience are respectively grouped in the Bibliography.

Omega-3 fatty acids (also called ω-3 fatty acids or n-3 fatty acids) refer to alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) [(9Z,12Z,15Z)-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid], EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid, or [(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)-5,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoic acid]) and DHA [docosahexaenoic acid, or (4Z,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z)-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid]. Common sources of animal omega-3 EPA and DHA fatty acids include fish oils, egg oil, squid oils and krill oil while some plant oils, such as oil from seabuckthorn seed and berry, algal cells, flax seed, Chia seed and hemp seed, contain high levels of ALA.

Linoleic acid [(9Z,12Z)-9,12-Octadecadienoic acid], gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, or all-cis-6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid) and arachidonic acid [(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)-5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic acid]) are omega-6 fatty acids. GLA is an omega-6 fatty acid that is found mostly in plant based oils such as borrage seed oil, evening primrose oil, and black currant seed oil.

Omega-3 fatty acids are vital for normal metabolism. Omega-3s are considered essential fatty acids, i.e., cannot be synthesized by the human body except that mammals have a limited ability, when the diet includes the shorter-chain omega-3 fatty acid ALA, to form the more important long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and then from EPA, the most crucial, DHA with even greater inefficiency. It is now accepted that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially EPA and DHA play important roles in a number of aspects of human health. However, over-fishing and concerns about pollution of the marine environment indicate a need to develop alternative, sustainable sources of very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (VLC-PUFAs) such as EPA and DHA [1]. Omega-6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health. Along with omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. Omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids help stimulate skin and hair growth, maintain bone health, regulate metabolism, and maintain the reproductive system [2]. Some preliminary clinical research suggests that GLA may be useful for Diabetic neuropathy, Rheumatoid arthritis, Allergies, Eczema, High blood pressure (Hypertension), Menopausal symptoms, etc. The ratio of dietary intake of omega-6 and omega-3 essential fatty acids is considered important for health in human [3].

A large number of oleaginous microorganisms have been reported to date. The oil they produce, often referred to as Single Cell Oil (SCO), is similar to those of plants and can be used for the production of biodiesel, food and industrial products [4-6]. SCO is now widely accepted in the market place and there is a growing awareness of the health benefits of PUFAs, such as γ-linolenic acid (GLA), arachidonic acid (ARA), DHA and EPA. ARA and DHA have also been used for fortification of infant formulae in many parts of the world. Fish oils are rich sources of DHA and EPA and a limited number of plant oilseeds are good sources of other PUFAs. Marine protists and dinoflagellates, such as species of Thraustochytrium, Schizochytrium and Crypthecodinium are the rich sources of DHA, whereas microalgae like Phaeodactylum and Monodus are good sources of EPA. Species of lower fungi Mortierella accumulate a high percentage of ARA in the lipid fraction [7].

While yeast Yarrowia lipolytica perhaps has enjoyed long history of research and development as a bioengineering host for SCO [8-12], Rhodosporidium toruloides (also known as Rhodotorula glutenis) has attracted increasing attention due to its ability to perform higher cell density fermentation at a fast growth rate, efficiently producing cell mass with an oil content of >67% (w/w dry cell mass) [13-16].

The Pucciniomycotina is a subphylum of fungi in the phylum of Basidiomycota [17]. It holds many species that have important industrial applications. For example, a number of species in the Rhodosporidium and Sporidiobolus genera, such as Rhodosporidium toruloides (also known as Rhodotorula gracilis, Rhodosporidium glutinis, Rhodotorula glutinis, Torula koishikawensis and Torula rubescens) and Sporobolomyces salmonicolor, are oil-rich single-cell yeasts capable of high density fermentation [6, 18]. These species hold great potential as a host for the production of long chain hydrocarbons, such as triacylglycerol (TAG, or fat), fatty acid esters (biodiesel), fatty alcohols, alcohols, lactones, terpenoids and vitamins [14, 19-21].

Rhodosporidium and Rhodotorula genomes are highly GC-rich, which has been found to profoundly influence genetic transformation and protein expression [22-24]. Metabolic engineering is an effective technique for improving production of metabolites in plants and microbes. In terms of bioengineering for omega-3 fatty acids, expressing various desaturases and elongases, both in plants and oleaginous yeast, are critical for the production of PUFAs [25]. GLA is synthesized from linoleic acid (LA; C18:2Δ9,12 cis) by Δ6-desaturase. The seed oil of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) contains high LA and has been modified by transformation with Δ6-desaturases from Mortierella alpina and Saprolegnia diclina to achieve more than 50% (v/v) of GLA respectively [26].

ALA and GLA are both precursors for the production of longer chains omega-3 fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid (AA), EPA and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [7, 27]. Therefore, the ability to produce high levels of ALA and GLA at high volumetric productivity is crucial for the bioengineering of longer chain PUFAs in Rhodosporidium toruloides. Thus, there is a need to develop fungal species of the Rhodospordium and Rhodotorula genera that produce high levels of ALA and GLA that are then available in the fungal species for the production of longer chain PUFAs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of fungal biotechnology, more particularly to genetic engineering methods for the production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fungal hosts selected from Rhodospordium and Rhodotorula genera.

In a first aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having an α-linolenic acid (ALA) present in an amount of at least 9% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) that uses fatty acid aldehyde as a substrate. The native ALD is encoded by a native ALD gene. In one the native ALD gene encodes an aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3. In another embodiment, the native ALD gene encodes an ALD having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3. In one embodiment, the native ALD gene has the genomic nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1. In another embodiment, the native ALD gene has the cDNA nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2. In a further embodiment, the native ALD gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1 or SEQ ID NO:2.

In some embodiments, the reduced activity of the native ALD is caused by reduced expression of the native ALD gene. The reduced expression can be caused by any genetic or epigenetic mechanism. In one embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an RNAi mechanism, such as siRNA, shRNA, miRNA and the like. In another embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an artificial transcription repressor. In a further embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an antisense mechanism. In one embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by sense suppression. In a further embodiment, the reduced activity is caused by a mutation of the native gene. In one embodiment, the mutation may be a substitutions, deletion, insertions, addition, or inversion and the like which results in reduced activity. In another embodiment, the mutation may be caused by homologous recombination. In a further embodiment, the mutation may be caused by T-DNA or transposon insertion.

In a second aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having an α-linolenic acid (ALA) present in an amount of at least 49% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) as described herein. In other embodiments, the genome of the fungal host has been modified to stably include two or more genes that encode proteins that are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Examples of such proteins are an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase, an omega-3 desaturase, a fatty acid elongase, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL), a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA) or a malic enzyme (MAE). In some embodiments, the coding sequences of such genes have been modified to contain at least 55% G and C content, preferably 60%-70% G and C content. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position.

In one embodiment, an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:88. In another embodiment, this ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:86. In another embodiment, this ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) is encoded by a cDNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:87. In another embodiment, the ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:82. In another embodiment, this diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) is encoded by a genomic DNA having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:80. In a further embodiment, this diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:81. In another embodiment, the diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, a malic enzyme (MAE1) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:85. In another embodiment, this malic enzyme (MAE1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:83. In a further embodiment, this malic enzyme (MAE1) is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:84. In another embodiment, a malic enzyme (MAE1) gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In a another aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having a gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) present in an amount of at least 30% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) as described herein. In other embodiments, the genome of the fungal host has been modified to stably express two or more additional genes encoding proteins that are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Examples of such proteins are an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase, acy-CoA delta-6 desaturase, a fatty acid elongase, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL), a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA) or a malic enzyme (MAE). In some embodiments, the coding sequences of such genes have been modified to contain at least 55% G and C content, preferably 60%-70% G and C content. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position.

In one embodiment, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:91. In another embodiment, this acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:89. In a further embodiment, this acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) is encoded by a cDNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:90. In another embodiment, the an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:5 and 94. In another embodiment, this acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:4, 92 and NO:93. In another embodiment, the acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase genes have a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequences described herein.

In one embodiment, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8. In one embodiment, this stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase is encoded by a genomic nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:6. In another embodiment, this stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:7. In another embodiment, the stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an omega-3 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 10. In one embodiment, this omega-3 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:9. In an additional embodiment, an omega-3 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12. In one embodiment, this latter omega-3 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11. In another embodiment, omega-3 desaturase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:96 and 98 wherein the sequences encoded by DNA containing at least G and C, preferably 60%-70% G and C. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position. In one embodiment, the acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturases is encoded by a nucleic acid set forth in SEQ ID NOs:95 and 97.

In one embodiment, a fatty acid elongase has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:101 and 104. In another embodiment, this fatty acid elongase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:99, 100, 102 and 103. In another embodiment, the fatty acid elongase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In some embodiments, the genes described herein that have been stably incorporated in the fungal genome are operatively linked to a promoter which permits efficient expression in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. The promoters for each incorporated gene may be the same or different. In some embodiments, the promoters are promoters found in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. Examples of suitable promoters include, but are not limited to, promoters of the following genes encoding the following proteins: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD), acyl-CoA carrier protein (ACP), fatty acid desaturase, translation elongation factor (TEF), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), enolase (2-phosphoglycerate dehydratase) (ENO), peptidylprolyl isomerase (PPI), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) or transaldolase. In other embodiments, the genes described herein also include a mRNA transcriptional terminator that may be one found in any eukaryotic species and their DNA viruses.

In a another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), comprising growing a fungal host cell described herein under conditions suitable to produce PUFAs. Any medium with at least 5% carbon source, such glucose, mannose, glycerol, sucrose can be used. Example of the medium is Medium MinLG containing 30-100 g glucose, 1.5 g yeast extract, 0.5 g (NH₄)₂SO₄, 2.05 g K₂HPO₄, 1.45 g KH₂PO₄, 0.6 g MgSO₄, 0.3 g NaCl, 10 mg CaCl₂, 1 mg FeSO₄, 0.5 mg ZnSO₄, 0.5 mg CuSO₄, 0.5 mg H₃BO₄, 0.5 mg MnSO₄, 0.5 mg NaMoO₄ (per liter). The medium pH is adjusted to 6-7. Cell culturing is performed at 25° C.-32° C.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1E show the T-DNA organization in constructs used in this invention. All binary vectors have the same pPZP200 backbone [28]. FIG. 1A: pEC3GPD-GUS. FIG. 1B: pEC3Pxxx-HPT3. FIG. 1C: pRH2034. FIG. 1D: pRHDGA1 and pRHMAE1. FIG. 1E: pRH201. LB: left border of T-DNA; RB: right border of T-DNA; Pgpd: 595 bp promoter of Umgpd1; P_(GPD1): 795 bp promoter of RtGPD1; Pxxx: various promoters; hpt-3: codon-optimized hygromycin resistance gene based on the codon usage bias in R. toruloides; GUS: E. coli β-glucuronidase gene; T_(35S): terminator of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S gene; Tnos: terminator of A. tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene. Unique restriction enzymes cutting sites in the plasmid are shown.

FIGS. 2A-2C show the T-DNA organization in constructs used in this invention. All binary vectors have the same pPZP200 backbone [28]. FIG. 2A: pRHE001. FIG. 2B: pRHE002.

FIG. 2C: pRHE003. LB: left border of T-DNA; RB: right border of T-DNA; Pgpd: 595 bp promoter of Umgpd1; P_(GPD1): 795 bp promoter of RtGPD1; hpt-3: codon-optimized hygromycin resistance gene based on the codon usage bias in R. toruloides; T_(35S): terminator of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S gene; Tnos: terminator of A. tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene. Unique restriction enzymes cutting sites in the plasmid are shown.

FIGS. 3A-3C show the T-DNA organization in constructs used in this invention. All binary vectors have the same pPZP200 backbone [28]. FIG. 3A: pRHE004. FIG. 3B: pRHE005. FIG. 3C: pRHE006. LB: left border of T-DNA; RB: right border of T-DNA; Pgpd: 595 bp promoter of Umgpd1; P_(GPD1): 795 bp promoter of RtGPD1; hpt-3: codon-optimized hygromycin resistance gene based on the codon usage bias in R. toruloides; T_(35S): terminator of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S gene; Tnos: terminator of A. tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene Unique restriction enzymes cutting sites in the plasmid are shown.

FIGS. 4A-4D show mutant strains identified by forward genetics. FIG. 4A: Comparison of average ALA (C18:3n=9) levels in WT and T-DNA mutants (RCMs) selected against cerulenin. FIG. 4B: Relative ALA levels in individual RCM mutant. FIG. 4C: Comparison of lipid accumulation in WT and mutants selected against tetrazeolium violet. FIG. 4D: Comparison of lipid accumulation in WT and mutants selected against fluorescent dye Nile red.

FIGS. 5A-5F show reverse genetic studies of ALD1 in R. toruloides. FIG. 5A: Schematic diagram of ALD1 and its deletion strategy. Homologous sequences used for deletion of ALD1 were 730 bp and 829 bp in length, between −185 to +535 and +1948 to +2776 from the translational start codon. FIG. 5B: Southern blot analysis of Δald1. Digoxigenin labeled DNA sequence (labelled ALD1R in FIG. 5A) was used as the probe against genomic DNA digested with HincII. FIG. 5C: Relative lipid yields in WT and Δald1 at day 3 and 4. FIG. 5D: Relative α-linolenic acid (ALA) yields in WT and Δald1. ** represents very significant difference by statistic t-test (P<0.01). FIG. 5E: Dry cell biomass (Biomass) and ALA contents (percentage of total fatty acids, % TFA) of WT and Δald1. FIG. 5F: Colors of cell cultured in potato detrose agar (PDA) and YPD broth.

FIG. 6 shows an alignment of fatty aldehyde dehydrogenases from various Basidiomycotous species. Ab: Agaricus bisporus (EKM75339.1; SEQ ID NO:105); Pc: Phanerochaete carnosa (EKM57674.1; SEQ ID NO:106); Mg: Malassezia globosa (XP_001730031.1; SEQ ID NO:107); Sr: Sporisorium reilianum (CBQ71609.1; SEQ ID NO:108); Um: Ustilago maydis (XP_762570.1; SEQ ID NO:109); Ml: Melampsora larici-populina (EGG04055.1; SEQ ID NO:110); Pg: Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (XP_003338710.1; SEQ ID NO:111); Pt: Puccinia triticina (XP_003338710.1; SEQ ID NO:112); Ps: Puccinia striiformis (genome locus CQM_00777.1; SEQ ID NO:113); Mv: Microbotryum violaceum (genome locus MVLG_02667.1; SEQ ID NO:114); Rg2: R. glutinis ATCC 204091 (SEQ ID NO:115); Rt3: R. toruloides NP1 (EMS18750.1; SEQ ID NO:116); Rt1: R. toruloides ATCC 10657 (SEQ ID NO:117). [Note: the sequence listing includes only a partial sequence for SEQ ID NOs: 112, 113, 115 and 117. See Figure for complete sequences.]

FIGS. 7A-7F show the effects of DGA1 and MAE1 in improving lipid accumulation. FIG. 7A: Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of DGA1 and MAE1 in R. toruloides ATCC 10657. Gene expressions in the engineering mutants (DGA1 and MAE1) were normalized against that in WT strain. FIG. 7B: Relative lipid yields in wild type and two engineering strains (WT, DGA1 and MAE1). Lipid quantities were normalized against that in WT. FIG. 7C: Fatty acid profiles in above strains. The intracellular lipids were extracted from above strains after 3-day bioprocess. FIG. 7D: Composition of unsaturated fatty acids in above strains. % TFA represents percentage of total fatty acids. FIG. 7E: Schematic diagram of DGA1 deletion. FIG. 7F: Southern blot analysis of Δdga1. Genomic DNAs of wild type and candidate mutant were digested with HincII and probed against DIG-labeling DGA1L DNA fragment as marked in FIG. 7E.

FIG. 8 shows the fatty acid profiles in different R. toruloides (R. glutinis) strains. Rt1: R. toruloides ATCC 10657; Rt2: R. toruloides ATCC 10788; Rg1: R. glutinis ATCC 90781; Rg2: R. glutinis ATCC 204091. R. toruloides (R. glutinis) was cultured in lipid accumulation medium (MinLG) as described previously [21] with some modifications. Medium MinLG contains 30 g glucose, 1.5 g yeast extract, 0.5 g (NH₄)₂SO₄, 2.05 g K₂HPO₄, 1.45 g KH₂PO₄, 0.6 g MgSO₄, 0.3 g NaCl, 10 mg CaCl₂, 1 mg FeSO₄, 0.5 mg ZnSO₄, 0.5 mg CuSO₄, 0.5 mg H₃BO₄, 0.5 mg MnSO₄, 0.5 mg NaMoO₄ (per liter). The medium pH was adjusted to 6.1. Cell culturing was conducted at 28° C. for 4 days with constant shaking (250 rpm).

FIGS. 9A and 9B show engineering processes for high ALA strains. FIG. 9A: ALA content in wild type and different desaturase engineering strains. FIG. 9B: ALA content in ald1 null strain (ald1e) and ald1e strain containing both the RtGPD1::MaFAd2-2 and RtGPD1::LuFAD3-2 gene cassettes.

FIG. 10 shows the enzyme assay of ALD1 and C-terminus truncated ALD1 (ALD1n). The reaction was mixed with 20 mM Tris-Ci buffer (pH8.0), 1.5 mM NAD+ or NADP+, 1.0 mM dodecanal and 10 μl purified enzyme. The assay was conducted at 25° C. for 2 min.

FIGS. 11A-11D show the characterization of delta-12 desaturase gene in R. toruloides ATCC 10657 (RtFAD2). FIG. 11A: Southern blot analysis of WT and FAD2 knockout strain (fad2Δ). Total DNA was digested with PstI and the blot was hybridized using digoxiginin-labeled right homology PCR fragment of FAD2 (FAD2R, FIG. 11C). FIG. 11B: Fatty acid content profile of WT and fad2Δ performed in triplicates. FIG. 11D: Fatty acid content profile of WT and fad2Δ cultured in YNB medium supplemented with and without LA (C18:2).

FIGS. 12A-12D show the characterization of ELO1 and ELO2 deletion mutants in R. toruloides ATCC 10657. (elo1Δ and elo2Δ) (FIG. 12A) and (FIG. 12C) Southern blot analysis of elo1Δ and elo2Δ. Total DNA was digested with PvuI and hybridized against digoxiginin-labeled ELO1R and ELO2L, respectively. (FIG. 12B) and (FIG. 12D) Fatty acid content profiles of elo1Δ and elo2Δ.

FIGS. 13A-13E show the schematic illustration of vectors used in FIG. 14. FIG. 13A: FAD1 (delta-9-oleate desaturase, ELO1) over-expression construct. FIG. 13B: FAD2 (delta-12 desaturase) over-expression construct. FIG. 13C: omega-3 desaturase (delta-15 desaturase) over-expression construct. FIG. 13D: FAD1 and FAD2 double gene over-expression vector. FIG. 13E: FAD1, FAD2 and omega-3 desaturase triple gene over-expression vector. LB: left border of T-DNA; RB: right border of T-DNA; RgGPD1: 685 bp GPD1 promoter derived from Rhodotorula grammis WP1; RtGPD1: 795 bp GPD1 promoter derived from R. toruloides ATCC 10657; hpt-3: codon-optimized hygromycin resistance gene based on codon usage bias in R. toruloides; TSV40: Simian vacuolating virus 40 large T antigen gene terminator; T_(35S): terminator of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S gene; Tnos: terminator of A. tumefaciens nopaline synthase gene; RtENO1: 445 bp version ENOI gene promoter from R. toruloides ATCC 10657; RtACC1: 805 bp version of ACC1 gene promoter from R. toruloides ATCC 10657; MaFAD2-2 is SEQ ID NO:4, and VfFAD3-2 is SEQ ID NO: 11.

FIG. 14: Fatty acid content profile of engineered strains. Three independent transformants were used for each analysis except for Δald1-OMA2, for which a total 18 independent transformants were analyzed. All transformants were fermented in medium RL2 for 5 days. WT: wild-type R. toruloides ATCC 10657 strain; Δald1-: constructs were transformed into ADL1 knockout mutant; Constructs are shown in FIG. 13. OEL1: FIG. 13A; MA: FIG. 13B; AF3: FIG. 13C; OM2: FIG. 13D; OMA2: FIG. 13E.

FIGS. 15A-15D show the characterization of putative ATP-citrate lyase gene in R. toruloides ATCC 10657 (RtACL1). FIG. 15A: Schematic diagram of ACL1 gene and its deletion strategy. FIG. 15B: Southern blot analysis of knockout strain acl1Δ. Total DNA was digested with PvuI and hybridized against digoxiginin-labeled ACL1L. M: Digoxigenin-labeled DNA Molecular Weight Marker VII (Roche Diagnosis, USA). FIG. 15C: Effects of ACL1 disruption on biomass, lipid yields, lipid content and residual glucose. FIG. 15D: Fatty acid content profile of Wt and acl1Δ strains.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of fungal biotechnology, more particularly to genetic engineering methods for the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in fungal hosts selected from Rhodospordium and Rhodotorula genera.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of skill in the art to which the invention belongs.

As used herein, “ALD1” is an aldehyde dehydrogenase that uses fatty acid aldehydes as a substrate.

As used herein, “allele” refers to any of one or more alternative forms of a gene locus, all of which alleles relate to a trait or characteristic. In a diploid cell or organism, the two alleles of a given gene occupy corresponding loci on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

A “dsRNA” or “RNAi molecule,” as used herein in the context of RNAi, refers to a compound, which is capable of down-regulating or reducing the expression of a gene or the activity of the product of such gene to an extent sufficient to achieve a desired biological or physiological effect. The term “dsRNA” or “RNAi molecule,” as used herein, refers to one or more of a dsRNA, siRNA, shRNA, ihpRNA, synthetic shRNA, miRNA.

The term “down regulated,” as it refers to genes inhibited by the subject RNAi method, refers to a diminishment in the level of expression of a gene(s) in the presence of one or more RNAi construct(s) when compared to the level in the absence of such RNAi construct(s). The term “down regulated” is used herein to indicate that the target gene expression is lowered by 1-100%. For example, the expression may be reduced by about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%.

The term “expression” with respect to a gene sequence refers to transcription of the gene and, as appropriate, translation of the resulting mRNA transcript to a protein. Thus, as will be clear from the context, expression of a protein coding sequence results from transcription and translation of the coding sequence.

As used herein, “gene” refers to a nucleic acid sequence that encompasses a 5′ promoter region associated with the expression of the gene product, any intron and exon regions and 3′ or 5′ untranslated regions associated with the expression of the gene product.

The term “gene silencing” refers to the suppression of gene expression, e.g., transgene, heterologous gene and/or endogenous gene expression. Gene silencing may be mediated through processes that affect transcription and/or through processes that affect post-transcriptional mechanisms. Gene silencing may be allele-specific wherein specific silencing of one allele of a gene occurs.

As used herein, “genotype” refers to the genetic constitution of a cell or organism.

The term “heterologous” or “exogenous” when used with reference to portions of a nucleic acid indicates that the nucleic acid comprises two or more subsequences that are not found in the same relationship to each other in nature. For instance, the nucleic acid is typically recombinantly produced, having two or more sequences from unrelated genes arranged to make a new functional nucleic acid, e.g., a promoter from one source and a coding region from another source. Similarly, a heterologous or exogenous protein indicates that the protein comprises two or more subsequences that are not found in the same relationship to each other in nature (e.g., a fusion protein).

The term “homolog” as used herein refers to a gene related to a second gene by descent from a common ancestral DNA sequence. The term, homolog, may apply to the relationship between genes separated by the event of speciation (ortholog) or to the relationship between genes separated by the event of genetic duplication (paralog). The term homolog is used generically to refer to all species.

As used herein, “phenotype” refers to the detectable characteristics of a cell or organism, which characteristics are the manifestation of gene expression.

The terms “polynucleotide,” “nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid molecule” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of nucleotides which may be a natural or synthetic linear and sequential array of nucleotides and/or nucleosides, including deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, and derivatives thereof. It includes chromosomal DNA, self-replicating plasmids, infectious polymers of DNA or RNA and DNA or RNA that performs a primarily structural role. Unless otherwise indicated, nucleic acids or polynucleotide are written left to right in 5′ to 3′ orientation, Nucleotides are referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. Numeric ranges are inclusive of the numbers defining the range.

The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide,” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residue is an artificial chemical analogue of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers. Amino acids may be referred to by their commonly known three-letter or one-letter symbols. Amino acid sequences are written left to right in amino to carboxy orientation, respectively. Numeric ranges are inclusive of the numbers defining the range.

“Operable linkage” or “operably linked” or “operatively linked” as used herein is understood as meaning, for example, the sequential arrangement of a promoter and the nucleic acid to be expressed and, if appropriate, further regulatory elements such as, for example, a terminator, in such a way that each of the regulatory elements can fulfill its function in the recombinant expression of the nucleic acid to make dsRNA. This does not necessarily require direct linkage in the chemical sense. Genetic control sequences such as, for example, enhancer sequences, can also exert their function on the target sequence from positions which are somewhat distant, or indeed from other DNA molecules (cis or trans localization). Preferred arrangements are those in which the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed recombinantly is positioned downstream of the sequence which acts as promoter, so that the two sequences are covalently bonded with one another. Regulatory or control sequences may be positioned on the 5′ side of the nucleotide sequence or on the 3′ side of the nucleotide sequence as is well known in the art.

The term “about” or “approximately” means within a statistically meaningful range of a value. Such a range can be within an order of magnitude, preferably within 50%, more preferably within 20%, more preferably still within 10%, and even more preferably within 5% of a given value or range. The allowable variation encompassed by the term “about” or “approximately” depends on the particular system under study, and can be readily appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art.

As used herein, the term “sequence identity,” “sequence similarity” or “homology” is used to describe sequence relationships between two or more nucleotide sequences. The percentage of “sequence identity” between two sequences is determined by comparing two optimally aligned sequences over a comparison window such as the full length of a referenced SEQ ID NO:, wherein the portion of the sequence in the comparison window may comprise additions or deletions (i.e., gaps) as compared to the reference sequence (which does not comprise additions or deletions) for optimal alignment of the two sequences. The percentage is calculated by determining the number of positions at which the identical nucleic acid base or amino acid residue occurs in both sequences to yield the number of matched positions, dividing the number of matched positions by the total number of positions in the window of comparison, and multiplying the result by 100 to yield the percentage of sequence identity. A sequence that is identical at every position in comparison to a reference sequence is said to be identical to the reference sequence and vice-versa. A first nucleotide sequence when observed in the 5′ to 3′ direction is said to be a “complement” of, or complementary to, a second or reference nucleotide sequence observed in the 3′ to 5′ direction if the first nucleotide sequence exhibits complete complementarity with the second or reference sequence. As used herein, nucleic acid sequence molecules are said to exhibit “complete complementarity” when every nucleotide of one of the sequences read 5′ to 3′ is complementary to every nucleotide of the other sequence when read 3′ to 5′. A nucleotide sequence that is complementary to a reference nucleotide sequence will exhibit a sequence identical to the reverse complement sequence of the reference nucleotide sequence. These terms and descriptions are well defined in the art and are easily understood by those of ordinary skill in the art.

As used herein, a “comparison window” or “window of comparison” refers to a conceptual segment of at least 6 contiguous positions, usually about 50 to about 100, more usually about 100 to about 150, in which a sequence is compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. The comparison window may comprise additions or deletions (i.e. gaps) of about 20% or less as compared to the reference sequence (which does not comprise additions or deletions) for optimal alignment of the two sequences Those skilled in the art should refer to the detailed methods used for sequence alignment, such as in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package Release 7.0 (Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Drive Madison, Wis., USA).

In a first aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having an α-linolenic acid (ALA) present in an amount of at least 9% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) that uses fatty acid aldehyde as a substrate. The native ALD is encoded by a native ALD gene. In one the native ALD gene encodes an aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3. In another embodiment, the native ALD gene encodes an ALD having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3. In one embodiment, the native ALD gene has the genomic nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1. In another embodiment, the native ALD gene has the cDNA nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2. In a further embodiment, the native ALD gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:2.

In some embodiments, the reduced activity of the native ALD is caused by reduced expression of the native ALD gene. The reduced expression can be caused by any genetic or epigenetic mechanism. In one embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an RNAi mechanism, such as siRNA, shRNA, miRNA and the like. In another embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an artificial transcription repressor. In a further embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by an antisense mechanism. In one embodiment, the reduced expression is caused by sense suppression. In a further embodiment, the reduced activity is caused by a mutation of the native gene. In one embodiment, the mutation may be a substitutions, deletion, insertions, addition, or inversion and the like which results in reduced activity. In another embodiment, the mutation may be caused by homologous recombination. In a further embodiment, the mutation may be caused by T-DNA or transposon insertion.

In a second aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having an α-linolenic acid (ALA) present in an amount of at least 49% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) as described herein. In other embodiments, the genome of the fungal host has been modified to stably include two or more genes that encode proteins that are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Examples of such proteins are an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase, an omega-3 desaturase, a fatty acid elongase, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL), a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA) or a malic enzyme (MAE). In some embodiments, the coding sequences of such genes have been modified to contain at least 55% G and C content, preferably 60%-70% G and C content. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position.

In one embodiment, an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:88. In another embodiment, this ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:86. In another embodiment, this ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) is encoded by a cDNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:87. In another embodiment, the ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:82. In another embodiment, this diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) is encoded by a genomic DNA having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:80. In a further embodiment, this diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:81. In another embodiment, the diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, a malic enzyme (MAE1) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:85. In another embodiment, this malic enzyme (MAE1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:83. In a further embodiment, this malic enzyme (MAE1) is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:84. In another embodiment, a malic enzyme (MAE1) gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In a another aspect, the present invention provides a fungal host having a gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) present in an amount of at least 30% of total fatty acids in cells of the fungal host. In one embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodospordium genera. In another embodiment, the fungal host is a species of the Rhodotorula genera. In some embodiments, the fungal host has reduced activity of a native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD) as described herein. In other embodiments, the genome of the fungal host has been modified to stably express two or more additional genes encoding proteins that are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Examples of such proteins are an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase, acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturase, a fatty acid elongase, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL), a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA) or a malic enzyme (MAE). In some embodiments, the coding sequences of such genes contain at least 55% G and C content, preferably 60%-70% G and C content. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position.

In one embodiment, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:91. In another embodiment, this acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) is encoded by a genomic DNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:89. In a further embodiment, this acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) is encoded by a cDNA nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID N:90. In another embodiment, the an acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) gene has the nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:5 and 94. In another embodiment, this acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:4, 92 and NO:93. In another embodiment, the acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase genes have a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequences described herein.

In one embodiment, a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8. In one embodiment, this stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase is encoded by a genomic nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:6. In another embodiment, this stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:7. In another embodiment, the stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an omega-3 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:10. In one embodiment, this omega-3 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:9. In an additional embodiment, an omega-3 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:12. In one embodiment, this latter omega-3 desaturase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 11. In another embodiment, omega-3 desaturase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In one embodiment, an acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturase has an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:96 and 98 wherein the sequences encoded by DNA containing at least G and C, preferably 60%-70% G and C. In other embodiments, at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the third position. In one embodiment, the acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturases is encoded by a nucleic acid set forth in SEQ ID NOs:95 and 97.

In one embodiment, a fatty acid elongase has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:101 and 104. In another embodiment, this fatty acid elongase is encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs:99, 100, 102 and 103. In another embodiment, the fatty acid elongase gene has a nucleotide sequence having 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% of the nucleotide sequence described herein.

In some embodiments, the genes described herein that have been stably incorporated in the fungal genome are operatively linked to a promoter which permit efficient expression in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. The promoters for each incorporated gene may be the same or different. In some embodiments, the promoters are promoters found in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. Examples of suitable promoters include, but are not limited to, promoters of the following genes encoding the following proteins: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD), acyl-CoA carrier protein (ACP), fatty acid desaturase, translation elongation factor (TEF), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), enolase (2-phosphoglycerate dehydratase) (ENO), peptidylprolyl isomerase (PPI), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) or transaldolase. In other embodiments, the genes described herein also include a mRNA transcriptional terminator that may be one found in any eukaryotic species and their DNA viruses.

In a another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) which comprising growing a fungal host cell described herein under conditions suitable to produce PUFAs. Any medium with at least 5% carbon source, such glucose, mannose, glycerol, sucrose can be used. Example of the medium is Medium MinLG containing 30-100 g glucose, 1.5 g yeast extract, 0.5 g (NH₄)₂SO₄, 2.05 g K₂HPO₄, 1.45 g KH₂PO₄, 0.6 g MgSO₄, 0.3 g NaCl, 10 mg CaCl₂, 1 mg FeSO₄, 0.5 mg ZnSO₄, 0.5 mg CuSO₄, 0.5 mg H₃BO₄, 0.5 mg MnSO₄, 0.5 mg NaMoO₄ (per liter). The medium pH is adjusted to 6-7. Cell culturing is performed at 25° C.-32° C.

In some embodiments, the genes described herein that have been stably incorporated in the fungal genome are operatively linked to a promoter which permit efficient expression in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. The promoters for each incorporated gene may be the same or different. In some embodiments, the promoters are promoters found in species of the Rhodospordium genera and the Rhodotorula genera. In other embodiments, the promoters are promotes found in other fungal species. Examples of suitable promoters include, but are not limited to, promoters of the following genes encoding the following proteins: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD), acyl-CoA carrier protein (ACP), fatty acid desaturase, translation elongation factor (TEF), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), enolase (2-phosphoglycerate dehydratase) (ENO), peptidylprolyl isomerase (PPI), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) or transaldolase. In other embodiments, the genes described herein also include a mRNA transcriptional terminator that may be one found in any eukaryotic species and their DNA viruses.

In some embodiments, a suitable promoter is one described in International Patent Application Publication No. WO 2012/169969, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. This published application describes several polynucleotide sequences derived from the upstream region of glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase gene (GPD1), translation initiation factor gene (TEF1), and stearoyl-CoA-delta 9-desaturase gene (FAD1) that function as promoters in fungi. The promoters described in this published application are set forth in SEQ ID NOs:55-62. In other embodiments, additional promoters are described in International Patent Application No. PCT/SG2014/000114 filed 10 Mar. 2014, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In one embodiment, the promoter sequences comprises the sequence set forth in any one of SEQ ID NOs:63-79. In another embodiment, the polynucleotide promoter sequences comprises the promoter sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs:63-79, i.e., the sequence without the cloning sites.

In addition, operable fragments of the promoter sequences described herein can be isolated using convention promoter screening assays and can be screened for efficient selection of transformed fungal cells using the techniques described herein. In one embodiment, an operable fragment, also termed a promoter portion herein, is about 400 base pairs up to about 1100 base pairs in length starting from the −1 position from the ATG codon. As used herein “up to” refers to the length of the promoter portion of the promoters set forth in the disclosed SEQ ID NOs. Thus, “up to” refers to the maximal length of the promoter sequence if less than 1100 nucleotides of the promoters of the disclosed SEQ ID NOs.

In one embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 60% identity with any one of these promoter sequences. In another embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 70% identity with any one of these promoter sequences. In an additional embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 80% identity with any one of these promoter sequences. In a further embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 90% identity with any one of these promoter sequences. In another embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 95% identity with any one of these promoter sequences. In another embodiment, a promoter sequence is provided which has at least 98% identity with any one of these promoter sequences.

The genes to be stably incorporated into the fungal genome are typically in the form of a DNA or polynucleotide construct comprising the promoter sequences described herein, an operably linked polypeptide encoding sequence described herein and an operably linked RNA transcriptional terminator sequence. In one embodiment, any transcriptional terminator operable in species of the fungi can be used. Terminators are typically located downstream (3′) of the gene, after the stop codon (TGA, TAG or TAA). Terminators play an important role in the processing and stability of RNA as well as in translation. Most, but not all terminators, contain a polyadenylation sequence or cleavage site. Examples of specific polyadenylation sequences are AAUAAA or AAUAAU. These sequences are known as the near upstream elements (NUEs) (Nagaya et al., 2010). NUEs usually reside approximately 30 bp away from a GU-rich region (Mogen et al., 1990; Mogen et al., 1992; Rothnie et al. 1994), known as far upstream elements (FUEs). The FUEs enhance processing at the polyadenylation sequence or cleavage site, which is usually a CA or UA in a U-rich region (Bassett, 2007). Within the terminator, elements exist that increase the stability of the transcribed RNA (Ohme-Takagi et al., 1993; Newman et al., 1993; Gutiérrez et al., 1999) and may also control gene expression (Ingelbrecht, 1989; An et al., 1989).

A DNA or nucleic acid construct that comprises a fungi operable promoter, protein encoding DNA sequence and a fungi operable terminator may also be referred to herein as an expression cassette. The expression cassette may include other transcriptional regulatory regions as are well known in the art. In other embodiments, the DNA or nucleic acid construct or expression cassette further comprises a selectable marker. Selectable markers are well known to the skilled artisan as are expression cassettes incorporating such selectable markers and promoters to drive their expression, such as described in International Patent Application Publication No. WO 2012/169969. Any suitable promoter operably linked to any suitable selectable marker can be used in the present invention.

In one embodiment, the coding sequence for the selectable marker is one that is either naturally existent or artificially created and contains at least about 60% GC. In a second embodiment, the coding sequence for the selectable marker is one that is either naturally existent or artificially created and contains about 70% GC. In a third embodiment, the coding sequence for the selectable marker is one that is either naturally existent or artificially created and contains about 75% GC. In one embodiment, at least about 70% of the codon triplets of such coding sequences end with C or G. In another embodiment, more than about 80% of the codon triplets of such coding sequences end with C or G. In one embodiment, the coding sequence for a selectable marker is at least 60% GC, preferably about 70% GC and most preferably about 75% GC in which at least 70% of the codon triplets end with C or G, preferably more than 80% of the codon triplets end with C or G. In one embodiment, such coding sequences are composed of UCG codons in at least about 40% of the total serine (Ser) residues.

In some embodiments, the selectable marker is part of a recombination marker free system. In one embodiment, the recombination marker free system is a Cre-lox recombination marker free system, such as described by Zuo et al. [29]. Such a system is useful for producing selection marker free transgenic plants, including transgenic Jatropha plants. In some embodiments, the recombination marker free system is positioned between the plant operable promoter and the one or more nucleic acid fragments. In this embodiment, the removal of the marker gene by the recombination event places the plant operable promoter in operable linkage with the one or more nucleic acid fragments as described herein.

In preparing the nucleic acid construct or an expression cassette, the various DNA fragments may be manipulated, so as to provide for the DNA sequences in the proper orientation and, as appropriate, in the proper reading frame. Toward this end, adapters or linkers may be employed to join the DNA fragments or other manipulations may be involved to provide for convenient restriction sites, removal of superfluous DNA, removal of restriction sites, or the like. For this purpose, in vitro mutagenesis, primer repair, restriction, annealing, resubstitutions, e.g. transitions and transversions may be involved.

Nucleic acids of the present invention may also be synthesized, either completely or in part, especially where it is desirable to provide plant-preferred sequences, by methods known in the art. Thus, all or a portion of the nucleic acids of the present invention may be synthesized using codons preferred by a selected host. Species-preferred codons may be determined, for example, from the codons used most frequently in the proteins expressed in a particular host species. Other modifications of the nucleotide sequences may result in mutants having slightly altered activity.

It may be useful to generate a number of individual transformed fungi with any recombinant construct in order to recover fungi free from any positional effects. It may also be preferable to select fungi that contain more than one copy of the introduced polynucleotide construct such that high levels of expression of the recombinant molecule are obtained.

It may be desirable to produce fungal lines that are homozygous for a particular gene if possible in the particular species. In some species this is accomplished by the use monosporous cultures. By using these techniques, it is possible to produce a haploid line that carries the inserted gene and then to double the chromosome number either spontaneously or by the use of colchicine. This gives rise to a fungus that is homozygous for the inserted gene, which can be easily assayed for if the inserted gene carries with it a suitable selection marker gene for detection of fungi carrying that gene. Alternatively, fungi may be self-fertilized, leading to the production of a mixture of spores that consists of, in the simplest case, three types, homozygous (25%), heterozygous (50%) and null (25%) for the inserted gene. Although it is relatively easy to score null fungi from those that contain the gene, it is possible in practice to score the homozygous from heterozygous fungi by Southern blot analysis in which careful attention is paid to the loading of exactly equivalent amounts of DNA from the mixed population, and scoring heterozygotes by the intensity of the signal from a probe specific for the inserted gene. It is advisable to verify the results of the Southern blot analysis by allowing each independent transformant to self-fertilize, since additional evidence for homozygosity can be obtained by the simple fact that if the fungi was homozygous for the inserted gene, all of the subsequent fungal lines from the selfed individual will contain the gene, while if the fungus was heterozygous for the gene, the generation grown from the selfed seed will contain null fungal lines. Therefore, with simple selfing one can select homozygous fungal lines that can also be confirmed by Southern blot analysis.

Creation of homozygous parental lines makes possible the production of hybrid fungus and spores that will contain a modified protein component. Transgenic homozygous parental lines are maintained with each parent containing either the first or second recombinant DNA sequence operably linked to a promoter. Also incorporated in this scheme are the advantages of growing a hybrid crop, including the combining of more valuable traits and hybrid vigor.

The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA, genetics, immunology, cell biology, cell culture and transgenic biology, which are within the skill of the art. See, e.g., Maniatis et al., 1982, Molecular Cloning (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Sambrook et al., 1989, Molecular Cloning, 2nd Ed. (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Sambrook and Russell, 2001, Molecular Cloning, 3rd Ed. (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Green and Sambrook, 2012, Molecular Cloning, 4th Ed. (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Ausubel et al., 1992, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (John Wiley & Sons, including periodic updates); Glover, 1985, DNA Cloning (IRL Press, Oxford); Russell, 1984, Molecular biology of plants: a laboratory course manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Anand, Techniques for the Analysis of Complex Genomes, (Academic Press, New York, 1992); Guthrie and Fink, Guide to Yeast Genetics and Molecular Biology (Academic Press, New York, 1991); Harlow and Lane, 1988, Antibodies, (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.); Nucleic Acid Hybridization (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Transcription And Translation (B. D. Hames & S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Culture Of Animal Cells (R. I. Freshney, Alan R. Liss, Inc., 1987); Immobilized Cells And Enzymes (IRL Press, 1986); B. Perbal, A Practical Guide To Molecular Cloning (1984); the treatise, Methods In Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc., N.Y.); Methods In Enzymology, Vols. 154 and 155 (Wu et al. eds.), Immunochemical Methods In Cell And Molecular Biology (Mayer and Walker, eds., Academic Press, London, 1987); Handbook Of Experimental Immunology, Volumes I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C. Blackwell, eds., 1986); Riott, Essential Immunology, 6th Edition, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1988; Fire et al., RNA Interference Technology: From Basic Science to Drug Development, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005; Schepers, RNA Interference in Practice, Wiley-VCH, 2005; Engelke, RNA Interference (RNAi): The Nuts & Bolts of siRNA Technology, DNA Press, 2003; Gott, RNA Interference, Editing, and Modification: Methods and Protocols (Methods in Molecular Biology), Human Press, Totowa, N.J., 2004; Sohail, Gene Silencing by RNA Interference: Technology and Application, CRC, 2004.

EXAMPLES

The present invention is described by reference to the following Examples, which is offered by way of illustration and is not intended to limit the invention in any manner. Standard techniques well known in the art or the techniques specifically described below were utilized.

Example 1 Strains, Chemicals, Media and Culture Conditions

R. toruloides strains ATCC 10657 and ATCC 10788; R. glutinis strain ATCC 90781 and R. glutinis ATCC 204091 were purchased from ATCC (USA). R. graminis strain WP1 and Sporobolomyces roseus FGSC 10293 (IAM13481) were obtained from Fungal Genetics Stock Center (University of Missouri, USA). A. tumefaciens strain AGL1 [30] was used for Agrobacterium tumefaceins-mediated transformation (ATMT). Hygromycin B was purchased from Roche Diagnostics (USA). Nylon N and N+ membranes (Φ 82 mm, 0.45 μm) were obtained from GE Healthcare (Uppsala, Sweden). Cerulenin (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) was made as 5 mg/ml stock in DMSO. Other chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich unless indicated otherwise.

Rhodosporidium strains were maintained at 28° C. in YPD broth (1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, 2% glucose) or on solid potato-dextrose agar (PDA). A. tumefaciens was grown at 28° C. in either liquid or solid 2YT medium (1.6% tryptone, 1% yeast extract, 0.5% NaCl). R. toruloides was cultured in lipid accumulation medium at 30° C. with constant shaking (200 rpm) as described previously [21] with some modifications. Medium MinLG contains (per liter) 30 g glucose, 1.5 g yeast extract, 0.5 g (NH₄)₂SO₄, 2.05 g K₂HPO₄, 1.45 g KH₂PO₄, 0.6 g MgSO₄, 0.3 g NaCl, 10 mg CaCl₂, 1 mg FeSO₄, 0.5 mg ZnSO₄, 0.5 mg CuSO₄, 0.5 mg H₃BO₄, 0.5 mg MnSO₄, 0.5 mg NaMoO₄ (pH6). For analysis of gene expression, a nitrogen-limitation variant, MinLG-N that is modified from MinLG with the concentration of yeast extract and ammonium sulfate reduced to 0.3 and 0.1 g/l respectively, was used. Lipid accumulation process was conducted at 30° C. with constant shaking (200 rpm).

Example 2 DNA Constructs

Oligonucleotides used are listed in Table 1. All restriction and modification enzymes were purchased from New England Biolabs (NEB, Massachusetts, USA). Binary vector pEX2 is pPZP200 derivatives used for dominant selection using hygromycin B [22].

TABLE 1 Sequences of Oligonucleotides Restriction Name Sequence (5′-3′) (SEQ ID NO:) Site Purpose Tnos-Sf TTTCCGCGGTCGAATTTCCCCGATCGTTCA (13) SmaI Tnos terminator Tnos- GAGTCGCTCACCTACTGCATC (14) PmeI Pmr 35T-Pmr TTTGTTTAAACATGCTAATTCGGGGGATCTG (15) PmeI Rt025 CACGTCGACTGAAACGCAG (16) Rt026 GACGAGGTCATCCGCGAG (17) Rt027 GTGCGGGTCGTGATGGAC (18) Rt028 CTGGAAGGCGTACGAGGAC (19) Rt033 GTCAAGCCGCCCAGGCTGTC (20) Rt034 GGATCCGCCAAGTCGCGCAG (21) HptRU GAGTCGCTCACCTACTGCATC (22) Colony PCR of HptRSL GAGAACTCGCCGATGTCGAG (23) hpt-3 HptRSL AGCGACTGGTAGAGCTGGTC (24) 2 Natf CTCTTGACGACACGGCTTAC (25) Colony PCR of Natr CAGGCCGCAGAGGGTGAAC (26) nourseothricin acetyltransferase gene Rsp1 GATGAGTTTGGACAAACCACAACTAG (27) HiTAIL PCR Rsp2 GGTTCAGGGGGAGATGTGGGAG (28) Rsp3 GTACCGGCGCGCCCACCTG (29) HRSP1 GAATCCTGTTGCCGGTCTTGCGATG (30) HRSP2 TTATGATTAGAGTCCCGCAATTATACA (31) HRSP3 CTAGCTTAGCTTGAGCTTGGATC (32) HRRSP1 GTGCTGACGCGGGCATAGCCCAG (33) HRRSP2 ATGCGACTAAAACACGCGACAAGA (34) HRRSP3 AGCAGCGGAGGGGTTGGATC (35) LAD1-1 ACGATGGACTCCAGAGCGGCCGC(GCA)N(GCA)NNNGGAA (36) LAD1-4 ACGATGGACTCCAGAGCGGCCGC(GCT)(GAT)N(GCT)NNNCG GT (37) AC1 ACGATGGACTCCAGAG (38) GAS CATACACCGGGCAAAGCAG (39) Rt055N TTTCCATGGGCCAGCAGGCGACGC (40) NcoI Engineering of Rt056Ev TTTGATATCAGGCGATAATATTGAGCTCC (41) EcoRV DGA1 Rt057N TTTCCATGGGCGGGAGTGAAGGGTTGCC (42) NcoI Engineering of Rt058Ev TTTGAGATCCTACTGCGCCTGCTGCTC (43) EcoRV MAE1 PgpdR- TTTACTAGTCTCTTCAGACGGCTTGITCTC (44) SpeI Sf ALD1Lf CACCCGTCCTCTCCGCTTC (45) Gene targeted ALD1Rr CCTCGCTCTTTCGCTGGTTC (46) deletion-ALD1 Rt113 CCGCCAATAACCTCACCTCAG (47) Gene targeted Rt114 GGCGATGGGAGCGTAGAATAC (48) deletion-DGA1 Rt148 CAGGTTTCATCGCAACTACATTGA (49) DIG-probes- Rt149 AACAGAGCGAGTTGAAGAGTAGCC (50) ALD1 Rt113 CCGCCAATAACCTCACCTCAG (51) DIG-probes- Dga1-1 GAAGAAGACGCCGAGTAGGATG (52) DGA I

Various promoters, such as U. maydis gpd1 (Pgpd, 595 bp in length) [31, 32], Aspergillus nidulans gpdA (PgpdA, 884 bp) [33], Ashbya gossypii translational elongation factor 1α gene (Ptef, 348 bp) [34] and RtGPD1 (1429 bp) [22], have been described previously. The promoter DNA fragments were obtained by PCR using plasmid DNA as template and primer pair Pgpd-Sf/Pgpd-Nr, PgpdA-Sf/PgpdA-Nr, Ptef-Sf/Ptef-Nr and Rt011S/Rt012N for Pgpd, PgpdA, Ptef and PRtGPD1 respectively. The resultant PCR fragments were digested with SpeI and NcoI and individually used for 3-fragment ligation with the 1030 bp BspHI/SmaI digested synthetic hpt-3 fragment [22] and 8855 bp SpeI/SacI (blunt-ended) digested vector pEC3GPD-GUS (FIG. 1), to create pEC3GPD-HPT3, pEC3GPDA-HPT3, pEC3TEF-HPT3 and pEC3GPDR-HPT3, respectively (FIG. 1).

To create knockout mutants of ALD1 and DGA1, complete or partial coding sequences (3 kb and 2.8 kb for ALD1 and DGA1, respectively) were amplified using total DNA of R. toruloides ATCC 10657 as the template and oligo pairs ALD1Lf/ALD1Rr and Rt113/Rt114 as primers respectively. Blunt-ended PCR products were ligated to the PmeI/SacI double-digested pEX2 vector after with T4 DNA polymerase treatment in the presence of dNTP to create the intermediate plasmids pEX2ALD1 and pEX2DGA1, to which the blunt-ended hygromycin resistance cassette P_(GPD1)::hpt-3::Tnos amplified from plasmid pRH2031 was inserted into XhoI/BspHI and SmaI/SpeI site respectively to create gene targeting plasmid pKOALD1 and pKODGA1.

Diacyl glycerol acyl-transferase gene DGA1 (GenBank accession number AB453835) and the mitochondrial malic enzyme gene MAE1 (locus tag RTG_03106 in Rhodotorula glutinis ATCC 204091 genomic scaffold GL989657) were amplified using the cDNA template of R. toruloides ATCC 10657 and R. glutinis ATCC 204091, respectively. Primer pair Rt055N/Rt056Ev and Rt057N/Rt058Ev was used for the amplification of DGA1 and MAE1, respectively. Both PCR products were digested with NcoI and EcoRV, ligated with NcoI/EcoRV-double digested pRH2034, which contains a protein expression cassette containing the 795 bp RtGPD1 promoter and cauliflower mosaic virus 35S gene terminator and a Cre-recombinase excisable Umgpd::HPT-3:nos hygromycin selection cassette [22] to create pRHDGA1 and pRHMAE1 (FIG. 1).

For engineering studies in α-linolenic acid, codon-optimized genes encoding Mortierella alpine Δ12 desaturase MaFAD2 (SEQ ID NO:5), Linum usitatissimum omega-3 desaturase LuFAD3 (GenBank accession number ABA02173.1; SEQ ID NO:10) and Vernicia fordii (also known as Aleurites fordii) omega-3 desaturase VfFAD3 (SEQ ID NO:12) were synthesized according to the codon preference of R. toruloides, creating synthetic genes, MaFAD2-2 (SEQ ID NO:4), LuFAD3-2 (SEQ ID NO:9) and VfFAD3-2 (SEQ ID NO:11), which was inserted to pRH2034 under the regulation of RtGPD1 promoter to create pRHE001, pRHE002 and pRHE003, respectively (FIG. 2). To make FAD2-FAD3 double genes overexpression cassette, the VfFAD3-2 and LuFAD3-2 cassettes were amplified from plasmid pRHE002 and pRHE003 using oligos Rt012Sf/35T-Pmr, digested with SpeI (blunt-ended) and PmeI and ligated with PmeI-cut pRHE001 to create plasmid pRHE004 and pRHE005, respectively (FIG. 3). Similarly, the MAE1 cassette was amplified from pRHMAE1, digested (SpeI-PmeI), blunt-ended and subsequently ligated with PmeI-cut pRHDGA1 to create the plasmid pRHE006 (FIG. 3).

Example 3 Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Transformation

The binary vectors were electroporated into A. tumefaciens AGL1 (2.5 kV, 25 μF, 400Ω) and subsequently selected with 2YT agar medium supplemented with streptomycin (100 μg/ml). Fungi transformation via ATMT was performed as described previously unless indicated otherwise [22].

Example 4 Southern Blot Analysis

Genomic DNA of R. toruloides was extracted as described previously [22]. Genomic DNA was digested with PstI and separated by electrophoresis on 0.8% agarose gels and DIG-labeled probe of the partial hpt-3 gene fragment (from nt 375 to 1036) was amplified using oligos HptRU and HptRSL2. For gene deletion analysis, genomic DNAs were digested with HincII, PstI and HincII for the putative knockout mutants Δald1, and Δdga1, respectively. DIG-labeled probes of approximately 0.6 kb upstream flanking sequence of ALD1 and DGA1 were amplified using oligos Rt148/Rt149 and Rt113/Dga1-1 respectively. Southern hybridization was carried out according to the manufacturer's instructions (DIG-High prime DNA labeling and detection starter Kit II, Roche Diagnostics).

Example 5 Quantitative Reverse Transcription PCR (q-RT-PCR)

Total RNA of R. toruloides was extracted as described previously [22]. To remove the trace of contaminating DNA, the RNA samples were treated with DNase I (Roche Diagnostics, USA) followed by precipitation with ethanol. cDNA was synthesized using the Improm-II Reverse Transcription system (Promega, USA) and real-time PCR was conducted in iCycler™ real-time PCR machine (Bio-Rad, USA) using the Platinum SYBR-Green qPCR SuperMix (Invitrogen, USA). Real-time conditions were as followed: an initial 95° C. denaturation step for 2 min followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 15 s, annealing at 58° C. for 15 s and extension step at 72° C. for 15 s. The data was acquired using the iCycler™ software (Bio-Rad). The expression level of RtGPD1 mRNA was used as the reference for normalization of target gene expression.

Example 6 Identification of T-DNA Tagging Positions

T-DNA tag positions in the genome was identified using High Efficient Thermal Asymmetric InterLaced PCR (hiTAIL-PCR) [35, 36]. Specific primers (HRSP1, HRSP2 and HRSP3) and arbitrary primer LAD1-4 were used for T-DNA left border (LB) flanking sequences whereas specific primers (HRRSP1, HRRSP2 and HRRSP3) and arbitrary primer LAD1-4 were used for the right border (RB) flanking sequences. PCR reactions were carried out with i-Taq DNA polymerase (i-DNA, Singapore) in a PTC-200™ Programmable Thermal Controller (Bio-Rad, USA). PCR products were purified using gel extraction kit (Qiagen) and sequenced directly using BigDye terminator kit (Applied Biosystems, USA) with oligo HRRSP3 (for RB) or HRSP3 (LB). In some cases, PCR products were cloned in pGTM-T easy vector (Promega, USA) and sequenced using oligos M13FP and M13RP as primers.

Example 7 Screening of Lipid Accumulation Mutants

R. toruloides ATCC 90781 genome was mutagenized by random insertion of T-DNA of pRH201 (FIG. 1E). Transformants were selected on YPD agar medium supplemented with 300 μg/ml cefotaxime, 150 μg/ml hygromycin and either 50 μg/ml cerulenin, 10 μg/ml tetrazolium violet or 0.5 μg/ml nile red (Sigma, USA). After incubated at 28° C. for 5 days, transformants showing larger sizes (for selection against cerulenin), darker purple-color pigmentation (for selection against tetrazolium violet) or higher fluorescence intensity (for screening in Nile red) were transferred to liquid YPD medium (300 μg/ml cefotaxime, 150 μg/ml hygromycin) for propagation. After streaking on PDA plates supplemented with above antibiotics, single colonies were used for secondary screening using 50 ml cultures to verify the phenotypes expected.

Example 8 Comparison of Lipid Accumulation Levels by Nile Red Staining

Nile red staining for fast estimation of lipid content was performed as described previously [37] with some modifications. Briefly, 10 μL cell culture and 2 μl Nile red stock (50 mM in acetone) were mixed with 200 μl PBS buffer (pH7.4) in a well of a FluoroNunc plate (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Langenselbold, Germany). Each sample was accompanied with a Nile red-free well as the background control. Another fraction of the cell culture (10 μl) was loaded to 90 μl PBS buffer (pH7.4) in a 96-well flat-bottom transparent plate (Nunc, Roskilde, Denmark) to measure cell optical density. The data was acquired and analyzed using the Infinite M200 μlate reader (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria) using the iControl™ version 3.0 software (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). Cell optical density was read at 600 nm after deducing background control while fluorescence intensity was measured with excitation and emission wavelength at 488 nm and 508 nm, respectively. The relative lipid content is calculated by normalization against absorptance at 600 nm after subtracting the background control. In all tests, both biological and statistical triplicates were included.

Example 9 Fatty Acid Profiling by GCMS

Total lipid was extracted as described previously [38] with some modifications. Cell cultures (1 ml) were pelleted and resuspended with 500 μl of lipid extraction solvent (chloroform:methanol=2:1). After adding 100 μg glass beads (1 mm in diameter, Sigma-Aldrich, Missouri, USA), vigorous vortexing was applied to the mixture for 10 min and the solvent phase was removed with a pipette. Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) and gas-liquid chromatography (GC) analyses were performed as described previously [39] with some modifications. Lipids were rotary evaporated to near dryness (Concentrator, Eppendorf. USA), dissolved in 1 ml methanol with of 5% (vol/vol) H₂SO₄, and incubated in a sealed glass vial at 90° C. for 2 hr. Fatty acid methyl esters were extracted with 300 μl of n-hexane after addition of 1 ml of PBS in water. 1 μl of the hexane extraction was injected to on a DB-WAX fused silica capillary column (30-m length, 0.25-μm diameter, and 0.25-mm film thickness) (Agilent J&W Scientific, Folsom, Calif., USA) in a gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS QP2010, Shimadzu, Japan). The running conditions were typically 42.3 ml/min nitrogen flow, 180° C. for starting temperature (3 min), a 15-min ramp to 240° C., and holding at 240° C. for 7 min. The fatty acid methyl esters peaks were identified by searching against Shimadzu NIST08 compound library and quantified as percentages of total fatty acids (% TFA).

Example 10 Identification of ALD1 by Direct Screening of R. toruloides T-DNA Insertion Libraries

T-DNA is known to integrate into the nuclear genomes predominately as single copies and this feature has been exploited extensively as a mutagenesis tool in plants and fungi [32, 40-43]. To investigate whether novel genes regulating oil yield or quality can be identified by direct screening of T-DNA mutant libraries, we designed three independent screening strategies aimed to identify changes in fatty acid profiles or contents in the T-DNA mutants using the aid of drugs or florescent dye.

Cerulenin, (2S)(3R)2,3-epoxy-4-oxo-7,10-dodecadienoylamide, is a drug isolated from the culture broth of Cephalosporium caerulens [44, 45] and has been successfully used to improve the accumulation of intracellular polyunsaturated fatty acids [46] or lipid content in oleaginous microorganisms [47, 48]. Being used as a fungicide due to its ability to block fatty acid biosynthesis [49], mutants that survive this treatment are expected to have higher level of lipid or polyunsaturated fatty acids. We screened ˜10,000 transformants against 50 μg/ml cerulenin in YPD agar medium and found 12 mutants that appeared to be more resistant to cerulenin. We named these putative Rhodosporidium Cerulenin Mutants as RCM1 to RCM12, respectively. Although lipid contents were found to little different from Wt in small scale liquid cultures, RCMs exhibited significantly higher levels of α-linolenic acid (ALA) (FIG. 4). Notably, RCM6 produced more than 3-fold higher level of ALA than WT (FIG. 4B).

Secondly, nile red (NR) has been extensively used as a fluorescent tracker for lipid [50]. Through screening of ˜10,000 T-DNA mutants, we identified four candidates that appeared to showed stronger red florescence, which were named as RNM1-4 (for Rhodosporidium Nile red Mutant). Quantitation of lipid yields revealed significant improvement in RNM mutants as compared to WT (FIG. 4D). However, little differences in fatty acid compositions could be observed (data not shown).

Similarly, tetrazolium violet, which is used as either a dye indicator for lipid accumulation [51], or a redox indicator for microbial growth [52] was used as an indicator to screen ˜3,000 transformants, leading to the identification of 6 deeper pigmented mutants (FIG. 4C). However, repeated analysis of fatty acid profiles failed to verify the change of fatty acid accumulation (data not shown).

T-DNA tagging positions in the above mutants were identified through Hi-TAIL PCR technique, and results showed that 11 out of 12 RCMs, 2 out of 4 RNMs and 6 out of 6 RTMs were successfully obtained and sequenced (Table 2). The affected genes were dominantly involved in maintenance of cell wall integration, lipid metabolism, signal transduction, protein folding and trafficking, metabolisms of secondary metabolites, amino acids, vitamins, cofactors etc. (Table 2).

TABLE 2 T-DNA Tagging Positons of R. turoloides Cerulenin Mutants (RCMs), R. turoloides Tetrazolium Violet Mutants (RTMs), R. turoloides Nile Red Mutants (RNMs) and R. toruloides Albino Mutants (RAMs) Sequence number^(a) RB sequences Genic site^(b, c) Best hit^(d) Annotation^(e) Organism^(f) Identity^(g) RCM1 Upstream- XP_001549261 mesothelin-like Botryotinia 26% 0.5 kb fuckeliana RCM2 Upstream- GENE ID: mannosyltransferase Vanderwaltozyma 77% 1.0 kb 5545759 polyspora Kpol_534p16 RCM3 Upstream- XP_001789963 regulator of nonsense Bos taurus 40% 0.5 kb transcripts; NADP- dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase RCM4 Genic XP_001607008 pipsqueak Nasonia 29% sequence vitripennis RCM5 Upstream- XP_003174510 C6 zinc finger domain- Arthroderma 32% 0.5 kb containing protein gypseum RCM6 Genic XP_001629556 Fatty aldehyde Nematostella 51% sequence dehydrogenase vectensis RCM7 Genic XP_571856 Hexose transport- Cryptococcus 53% sequence related protein neoformans RCM8 Genic XP_001731990 Transcription initiation Malassezia 40% sequence factor TFIID subunit 2 globosa RCM9 Genic NP_001125572 stAR-related lipid Pongo 29% sequence transfer protein 3 abelii RCM10 Upstream- XP_001645395 GPI Vanderwaltozyma 77% 1.0 kb mannosyltransferase 3 polyspora RCM11 Upstream- XP_662119 Cell wall protein that Aspergillus 36% 0.5 kb functions in the transfer nidulans of chitin to beta (1-6) glucan RCM12 NA^(h) — — — — RTM1 Genic EGU12290 Proteophosphoglycan Rhodotorula 93% sequence ppg4 glutinis ATCC 204091 RTM2 Upstream EGU13095.1 salicylate hydroxylase Rhodotorula 73% 0.5 kb glutinis ATCC 204091 RTM3 Genic XP_501740.1 YALI0C11858p Yarrowia 71% lipolytica RTM4 Upstream ZP_08453184.1 putative zinc-binding Streptomyces sp. 47% 0.5 kb oxidoreductase RTM5 Genic ZP_07628725.1 putative lipoprotein Prevotella amnii 45% RTM6 Genic YP_001220603.1 resolvase site-specific Aeromonas 94% recombinase bestiarum RNM1 Downstream AAC98967.2 omega-3 fatty acid Vernicia 41% 0.3 kb desaturase fordii RNM2 NA RNM3 Upstream ZP_03104366 amino acid permease Bacillus 87% 0.5 kb cereus W RNM4 NA RAM1 Genic XP_003032296 Riboflavin transporter Schizophyllum 52% sequence MCH5 commune RAM2 Upstream- YP_001220603 resolvase Aeromonas 95% 0.5 kb bestiarum RAM3 Genic XP_571856 hexose transport-related Cryptococcus 36% sequence protein neoformans RAM4 Genic XP_758766 TATA-binding protein Ustilago 35% sequence (TBP) associated factor maydis Taf2 (MTCC 457 contig458_1: 18376- 18377+) RAM5 Genic KF601426.1 phytoene synthase Rhodosporidium 98% sequence diobovatum RAM6 Downstream- EGU11996 Serine/threonine kinase Rhodotorula 56% 0.2 kb glutinis ATCC204091 RAM7 Genic XP_001629556 Fatty aldehyde Nematostella 51% sequence dehydrogenase vectensis ^(a)LB-Flanking sequences ^(b)T-DNA tagged genes were determined according to the BLASTx results ^(c)Upstream 1.0 kb, Upstream 0.5 kb and downstream 0.3 kb denotes T-DNA insertions within upstream 501~1000 bp, 500 bp and downstream 300 bp of the corresponding tagged gene, respectively ^(d)Best hit denotes the BLASTx result with the highest E-score ^(e)Annotations were determined according to the BLASTx results ^(f)Microorganism denotes the host of Best hit ^(g)Identity values were from BLASTx results ^(h)Not available due to the bad sequencing result

Example 11 Characterization of the T-DNA Tagging Mutant RCM6

To further investigate the mutants screened through the above forward genetics, and as a proof of principle, reverse genetics was approached for studies of potential regulatory effect on lipid accumulation and carotenoid biosynthesis in the mutants RCM6 and RAM5, respectively.

Homologous analysis revealed that T-DNA in RCM6 was integrated within 72542-72543 nt of 400^(th) contig (GenBank Accession No. AEVR01000400). BLASTx of sequences adjacent to the T-DNA tagging position exhibited a putative aldehyde dehydrogenase domain-containing protein was disrupted by T-DNA integration in RCM6 (FIG. 6A). The target protein was located between a putative thiazole biosynthetic enzyme (EGU11956) and a candidate dipeptidyl aminopeptidase (EGU11957), showing highly homologous to aldehyde hydrogenases from other fungal species such as Streptomyces sviceus (EDY60340.1, E-value=2E-68) and Mycobacterium sp. (YP_936108, E-value=3E-66), etc. Hence, the putative aldehyde hydrogenase (named as ALD1) encoding gene disrupted by T-DNA would result in the phenotype of RCM6. Further analyses of RT-PCR and rapid amplification cDNA ends (RACE) revealed that ALD1 gene spans 2461 bp in contig#400, containing 11 exons separated by 10 introns (FIG. 5A). It's 5′ UTR is 18 nt in length, followed a short stretch of CT-rich motif (CT box, data not shown). The mRNA splicing strictly abides by the canonical GU-AG rule, which produces a 1506-nt mRNA in length, encoding a 501-aa protein with the strictly conserved NAD-binding fingerprint motif Gly-X-Gly-X-X-Gly (SEQ ID NO:53) (GSGTVG, aa 193-198; SEQ ID NO:54), adenosine ribose (NAD)-binding amino acid (E₁₄₈) and catalytic center Cys (C₂₄₉) (FIG. 6). In RCM6, T-DNA was integrated into the position between 2097th and 2098^(th) nucleotide from the start codon of ALD1, disrupting 9^(th) exon resulting in the deletion of the C-terminal 58 aa that form part of the RYPP motif (FIG. 6).

To further demonstrate the function in lipid accumulation, ALD1 was deleted through homologous recombination with the aid of ATMT. Nucleotide sequence in ALD1 ranging from +536 to +1947 was replaced by the hygromycin resistant cassette (P_(GPD)::hpt-3::Tnos, FIG. 5A) and the correct ald1 null mutants were verified by Southern blot analysis (FIG. 5B). When cultured in either liquid broth or on agar medium, Δald1 showed a orange-pigmented color in contrast to the pink-pigmented color in Wt (FIG. 5E). Δald1 grew a little slower than WT in lipid-accumulating medium, but it yielded similar biomass when carbon source in the media was exhausted at the 4^(th) day (FIG. 5E). Before the glucose exhausted (3^(rd) day), Δald1 mutants showed little differences with WT in lipid yields. When glucose exhausted, lipid levels were decreased in both strains, however, lipids content was significantly higher in Δald1 mutant (FIGS. 5C and 5D). Strikingly, nearly half of the ALA was degraded in WT whereas little degradation was found in the Δald1 mutant (FIG. 5F). These results are consistent with those of the T-DNA tagged mutant, RCM6 (FIG. 4B).

Example 12 Improving Total TAG Accumulation Levels in R. toruloides by Rationale Design

Triacylglycerol (TAG) is the major neutral lipids occurring in most eukaryotic cells and the biosynthetic pathways are highly conserved [53]. Metabolic engineering by rationale designs has been quite successful in improving lipid content and productivity [54-56]. In R. toruloides, the sequence information for diacylglycerol acetyltransferase (Dga1) and malic enzyme (MAE1) are available (see for example SEQ ID NO:81 and SEQ ID NO:84, respectively). Overexpression cassettes for both genes were constructed to be driven by the 795-bp RtGPD1 promoter, P_(GPD1)::DGA1 and P_(GPD1)::MAE1, FIG. 1D, which were integrated into the chromosome of R. toruloides ATCC 10657 by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that the mRNA transcript levels of both genes were dramatically enhanced throughout the 3-day bioprocess (FIG. 7A), resulted in 2.3 and 1.8-fold improvement of the peak lipid yield over Wt strain with DGA1 and MAE1 over-expression strain respectively (FIG. 7B). Fatty acid profile was not significantly changed in both strains (FIGS. 7C and 7F). As expected, a null mutant dga1 constructed (FIG. 7D) had a dramatically decreased lipid accumulation (FIG. 5E).

Example 13 Improving Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) Production in R. toruloides by Rationale Design

In R. toruloides strains, oleic acid (C18:1) is the premoninant fatty acid component (˜50%) while palmitoleic acid (C16:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2) consists of ˜20% of total FA. α-linolenic acid (C18:3n=9, ALA), a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, is a minor component present at 3˜4% of total fatty acids (% TFA) (FIG. 8). To produce ALA from oleic acid, a delta-12 desaturase (Fad2) and a omega-3 desaturase (Fad3) is required [57, 58]. Full-length genes of flax (L. usitatissimum) FAD3, tung (V. fordii) FAD3 and M. alpine FAD2 were designed and commercially synthesized according to the codon usage preference of R. toruloides [22], in which all rare codons were replaced with those that are frequently used in R. toruloides. The GC content of the genes ranged was 65.3% in LuFAD3-2 (SEQ ID NO:9), 64.8% in MaFAD2-2 (SEQ ID NO:4) and 63.3% in VfFAD3-2 (SEQ ID NO: 1).

The high level expression of the three synthetic genes was achieved by operatively linking to the RtGPD1 promoter and cauliflower mosaic virus 35S terminator, followed by profiling fatty acid compositions of selected ATMT strains. Elite strains over-expressing the LuFAD3-2 (RHE001), VfFAD3-2 (RHE002) or MaFAD2-3 (RHE003) showed an improvement of ALA content of 1.8, 2.2 and 1.6 folds respectively (FIG. 9A). Subsequently, the RtGPD1::AfFAD3-2:35S and RtGPD1::MaFAD2-2:35S cassettes were stacked into a single T-DNA vector, pRHE004, which was transformed by ATMT to a derivative (RT1CE6, containing a 17β-estradiol inducible Cre gene stably integrated into the genome) of R. toruloides ATCC 10657. Selected elite strain (RHE004) was further modified by deleting the ALD1 gene using the pKOALD1 vector. The resultant strain (named ald1eAM) produced 3.74-fold higher ALA than ald1 null mutant (ald1e) (FIG. 9B), with the ALA content reaching ˜49% of total fatty acids.

Example 14 Biochemical Analysis of Ald1

To characterize Ald1 and to confirm that the deletion of C-terminal 58 residues resulted from the T-DNA insertion in RCM6 mutant compromised its enzymatic activity, both the full length and the truncated version of Ald1 proteins were expressed in E coli BL21(DE3) as a fusion protein with the C-terminal 6× histidine tag. Recombinant Ald1 and Ald1n were purified with HisTrap column (GE healthcare, USA) and assayed using the method reported previously [59] with some modifications. Briefly, the reaction mixture was composed of 40 μl of 100 mM Tris-Cl buffer (pH8.0), 30 μl of 10 mM NAD+ or NADP+ (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), 10 μl of 20 mM dodecanal (dodecyl aldehyde, C12-aldehyde, Sigma-Aldrich, USA), 110 μl water and 10 μl purified enzyme. The reaction was performed at room temperature (25° C.) and initiated by the addition of enzyme. The time course of optical density value at 340 nm was read through the Infinite M200 μlate reader (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria) using the iControl™ version 3.0 software (Tecan, Salzburg, Austria). as described previously [40]. As shown in FIG. 10, both Ald1 and Ald1n showed a clear dehydrogenase activity, with a slightly preference to NAD+. Notably, the mutant protein with the C-terminal 58 aa deletion showed significantly lower enzymatic activity.

Example 15 Characterization of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Genes in R. toruloides

R. toruloides homologues of various fatty acid desaturase, elongase and ATP-citrate lyase were identified by BLAST search against the R. toruloides ATCC 204091 genome scaffold sequences 204091 (previously named Rhodotorula glutinis, GenBank accession no. AEVR02000000, whole genome shotgun sequencing project PRJNA59971, Mississippi State University, USA.) using known Yarrowia lipolytica and Ustilago maydis enzyme sequences as queries. Genetic manipulation and DNA sequence characterization were done with R. toruloides strain ATCC 10657 or its derivative Rt1ck, a KU70-deficient mutant exhibiting extremely high efficiency in homologous recombination [60]. Oligonucleotides used are listed in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Oligonucleotides Used For: Deletion of Stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase gene (RtFAD1) DS9L-Sf GCGAGGGATGGCAGTAAGACG (118)^(a) SacI DS9L-Br AAA GGATCC AACTTGCTCGCCCAGTACC (119) BamHI DS9R-Hf TTT AAGCTT CACGTACAGCCTGTGGTAGCC (120) HindIII DS9R-Str TTT AGGCCT GGAGGAGTCGAGCGTGAGAGT (121) StuI Rt227Nf TTTcccaggCTGCCTCGTCGGCACTCGAG (122) NcoI Rt228Evr TTTgatatcCATTACGCCTTGACCGTCAG (123) EcoRV For deletion of delta-12 desaturase gene (RtFAD2) DS12L-Sf2 AAA GAGCTC GGTGACTGCATGCTCCGTTAC (124) SacI DS12L-Br2 AAA GGATCC TGATGGAGTAGTTGGGCACGA (125) BamHI DS12R-Hf TTT AAGCTT CCTCCTCCTTGATCTTTCGCCG (126) HindIII DS12R-Str TTT AGGCCT GACCTTTGCGTCCTCCCTTCA (127) StuI OEDS12f TCAGAACAACACCAGATCACTCACAATGGCCGCTACCCTCCGCC (128) Rt229Ndf TTTCATATGGCCGCTACCCTCCGCCA (129) NdeI Rt230Evr TTTGATATCTCTAGGGCATCGTCTAGAGTC (130) EcoRV For deletion of elongase gene 1 (RtELO1) ELO1L-Sf AAA GAGCTC TATTGTTCGACTAGACTGCGCCAC (131) SacI ELO1L-Br AAA GGATCC AAGGAGGATATTGTGCACGAGGA (132) BamHI ELO1R-Hf CGACTCCAAATCACCCAGTTCCTC (133) HindIII ELO1R-Str TTT AGGCCT GACCGACTTTGACGACGAC (134) StuI For deletion of ATP-citrate lyase gene (RtACL1) ACL1L-Sf2 AAA GAGCTC GCGGCACTGTACTTCACTACG (135) SacI ACL1L-Br2 AAA GGATCC ACGAGACCTATCCAAACGC (136) BamHI ACL1R-Hf2 TTT AAGCTT AAGGTCAAGTCCAAGGCCAAC (137) HindIII ACL1R-Str2 TTT AGGCCT GGCTGCTGGAGAAACGAAACT )138) StuI For deletion of elongase gene 2 (RtELO2) ELO2L-Stf AAA AGGCCT CATTCCCTCGACTCGACGCAT (139) StuI ELO2L-Hr AGAGGAGGAAGTTGTGCAGCA (140) HindIII ELO2R-Bf TTT GGATCC GTTGCGGCGAGTCCTGTCATC (141) BamHI ELO2R-Sr TTT GAGCTC CGGAGCGAGTAAGACGAGG (142) SacI For expression of ELO1 cDNA Rt236Nf TTT CCATGG CCTCGTACGCCGCCCATCC (143) NcoI Rt237Evr TTT GATATC GGAAGGGACCGCGCTAGTT (144) coRV For expression of ELO2 cDNA Rt259Nf TTT CCATGG TCGCACCGTCCCCCG (145) NcoI Rt260Evr TTT GATATC GAGAAGAAGGTGGGGTGTTTAG (146) EcoRV ^(a)SEQ ID NO:

For deletion of delta-9-oleate desaturase gene FAD1 (or OLE1) homologue, left and right homology flanking fragment (˜0.9 kb each) were amplified using R. toruloides ATCC 10657 genomic DNA with oligo pairs DS9L-Sf/DS9L-Br and DS9R-Hf/DS9R-Str, respectively. A four-fragment ligation was performed with SacI/PmeI-digested pEX2 binary vector, SacI/BamHI-digested left flanking fragment, BamHI/HindII-digested codon-optimized hygromycin selection cassette from pDXP795hptR (P_(GPD1)::hpt-3::T_(nos)[60]) and HindIII/StuI-digested right flanking fragment to generate gene deletion plasmid pKOOLE1. A similar strategy was applied to construct both pKOFAD2 and pKOELO1, for the knockout of putative delta-12 desaturase gene and elongase gene 1, respectively. Oligo pairs DS12L-Sf2/DS12L-Br2 and DS12R-Hf/DS12R-Str were used to amplify the left (0.6 kb) and right (0.9 kb) homology flanking fragment for pKOFAD2, and ELO1L-Sf/ELO1L-Br and ELO1R-Hf/ELO1R-Str used for pKOELO1 (˜0.9 kb each). For ELO2, oligo pairs ELO2L-Stf/ELO2L-Hr and ELO2R-Bf/ELO2R-Sr were used (˜0.8 kb each) and digested with StuI/HindIII and BamHI/SacI for the left and right homology flanking fragment, respectively. Both fragments were similarly used in the four-fragment ligation to generate pKOELO2.

For deletion of putative ATP-citrate lyase gene (RtACL1), oligo pairs ACL1L-Sf2/ACL1L-Br2 and ACL1R-Hf2/ACL1R-Str2 were used to amplify the left and right homology flanking fragments (0.9 kb each) to generate pKOACL1 using a similar strategy described above.

The cDNA sequences of genes of interest were obtained by RT-PCR, with 5′ and 3′ RACE performed using BD SMARTer™ RACE cDNA Amplification Kit (Clontech, California, USA) according to the manufacturer's instruction. Oligo pair OLE1U1/OLE1L1, FAD2U1/FAD2L1 was used as the specific primer for 5′/3′ RACE of FAD1 (OLE1) and FAD2, respectively.

The predicted ORF of Fad1 (Ole1) and Fad2 encodes protein of 545, 451 aa in length, respectively. Both Fads share a common conserved domain of membrane fatty acid desaturase (protein family no. pfam00487, EMBL-EBI). However, Fad2 lacks of cytochrome β5-like heme/steroid binding domain (pfam00173. BLAST searches revealed that Ole1 and Fad2 exhibited the highest identity to stearoyl-CoA desaturase from Puccinia graminis (XP_003326562.1, 70% identity), Δ12-fatty acid desaturase from Ustilago maydis (XP_757193.1, 57% identity), respectively.

Two elongase were identified. ELO1 (Seq ID. No. 99 and 100) and ELO2 (Seq ID. No. 102 and 103) encodes protein of 329 (Seq ID 101) and 293 aa (Seq ID 104) in length, respectively. Both putative fatty acid elongases share a common conserved domain of GNS1/SUR4 family that involved in long-chain fatty acid elongation system (pfam01151). Elo1 and Elo2 exhibited the highest identity to the fatty acid elongase from Puccinia graminis (PGTG06945, XP_003325743.2, 43% identity) and Melampsora larici-populina (MELLADRAFT_42723, XP_007407925.1, 65% identity), respectively. Analysis of fatty acid profiles of ELO1 and ELO2 knockouts revealed that ELO1 knockout lead to little change in the profile except a moderate decrease of C18:0 and small increase of C16:0 and C18:1. In contrast, ELO2 knockout lead to complete loss of long chain fatty acid (>C18) synthesis (FIG. 12). These results strongly suggest that that OLE1 is a short chain fatty-CoA elongase whereas ELO2 is able to elongase both long chain and short chain fatty acid-CoA.

For overexpression studies, cDNA of OLE1, FAD2 and ELO2 was amplified using synthesized R. toruloides cDNA template by reverse transcription with primer pairs Rt227Nf/Rt228Evr, Rt229Ndf/Rt230Evr and Rt259Nf/Rt260Evr, respectively. The NcoI/EcoRV-digested PCR products were ligated with NcoI/EcoRV-digested pKC1 vector to create the pKC1OLE1, pKC1FAD2 and pKC1ELO2 resulted in over-expression of the gene because of the strong RtGPD1 promoter used in the vector pKC1.

Example 16 Gene Deletion Analysis

To verify functions of each gene, knockout mutants were created by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of the respective knockout constructs; screening by colony PCR and Southern blot analysis. FAD1 knockout was unsuccessful in several attempts. Deletion of FAD2 was successful after supplementation of linoleic acid in transformation and propagation media. Linoleic acid (C18:2, LA) and α-linolenic acid (C18:3, ALA) were absent in the FAD2 null mutant while the content of C18:1 was increased to nearly 70% over total fatty acids (FIG. 11B). This confirms that FAD2 gene (SEQ ID NO:92) encodes a Δ12-fatty acid desaturase catalyzing the conversion of oleic acid (C18:1) to form LA. The lack of ALA in the FAD2 knockout mutant suggests that Fad2 is a Δ12 and Δ15 bifunctional fatty acid desaturase. This was supported by the inability of fad2Δ mutant to produce ALA production even when supplemented with LA (C18:2) precursor (FIG. 11D).

The function of FAD1 (OLE1) can be demonstrated by over-expression studies. Transformation of RtGDP1::OLE1 cassette (FIG. 13A) into Wt and ALD1 knockout strain (Δald1e) resulted significant increase in oleic acid content (FIG. 14). Accordingly, stacking RtGDP1::OLE1 to MaFAD2-2 (FIG. 13D), or both to MaFAD2-2 and VfFAD3-2 over-expression cassette (FIG. 13E) resulted into an increase of LA and ALA respectively (FIG. 14). Among 18 of transformants expressing the triple-gene cassette, three showed >20% ALA content with one containing ˜24% in ald1e background. The lower ALA content in this series is likely attributed to the weaker ACC1 promoter used for MaFAD2-2 as the LA content was very low (not shown).

Example 17 Characterization ATP-Citrate Lyase (ACL1) Genes in R. toruloides

Based on studies in animal, fungal ATP-citrate lyase (ACL) is believed to be an important factor for oil accumulation. A putative ATP-citrate lyase/synthase gene ACL1 (seq ID No. 86 and 87) was identified by BLAST search of Rhodotorula glutinis ATCC 204091 partial genome sequences. The putative Acl1 protein sequence is set forth in Seq ID. No. 88. A knockout mutant of the ACL1 gene was created and it showed significantly reduced oil accumulation and biomass growth (FIG. 15). This strongly suggests ACL1 expression facilitates oil accumulation and biomass production in R. toruloides.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A fungal host cell wherein the total fatty acids are composed of at least 9% alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) or gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), wherein the genome of the fungal host cell has been modified such that the fungal host cell has reduced native aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD1) enzyme activity compared to a fungal host cell having an unmodified genome, wherein the fungal host is a species of the Rhodosporidium genera or the Rhodotorula genera, wherein the amino acid sequence of the native ALD1 has the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3 or has at least 90% identity to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:3, and wherein the genome of the host fungal cell has been modified to create a mutation in the gene encoding the native ALD1.
 2. The fungal host cell of claim 1, wherein the native ALD1 is encoded by a nucleic acid selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleic acid having the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1; (b) a nucleic acid having the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2; (c) a nucleic acid having at least 90% identity to the nucleic acid of (a); and (d) a nucleic acid having at least 90% identity to the nucleic acid of (b).
 3. The fungal host cell of claim 1, wherein the mutation is caused by T-DNA insertion, homologous recombination or site-directed mutagenesis.
 4. The fungal host cell of claim 1, wherein the genome of the fungal host cell has been further modified to include at least two expression cassettes, wherein each expression cassette comprises a promoter operatively linked to a nucleic acid encoding a protein involved in fatty acid biosynthesis and wherein the proteins are selected from the group consisting of: (a) an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase; (b) a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase; (c) an omega-3 desaturase; (d) a fatty acid elongase; (e) an acyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC); (f) an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL); (g) a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA); (h) a malic enzyme (MAE); and (i) acyl-CoA delta-6 desaturase.
 5. The fungal cell of claim 4, wherein the expression cassette further comprises a transcription terminator operatively linked to the nucleic acid encoding a protein involved in fatty acid biosynthesis.
 6. The fungal cell of claim 4, wherein the coding sequences for the nucleic acids contain at least 55% C and G, and wherein at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the 3^(rd) position.
 7. The fungal cell of claim 4, wherein the coding sequences for the nucleic acids contain 60%-70% C and G, and wherein at least 70% of the codons have a C or G at the 3^(rd) position.
 8. The fungal cell of claim 4, wherein the proteins are selected from the group consisting of: (a) an acyl-CoA delta-12 desaturase having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:94 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (b) a stearoyl-CoA-delta-9-desaturase having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (c) an omega-3 desaturase having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:10 or SEQ ID NO:12 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (d) a fatty acid elongase having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:101 or SEQ ID NO: 104 (Elo2) or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (e) an acyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:91 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (f) an ATP:citrate lyase (ACL1) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:88 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (g) a diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:82 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; (h) a malic enzyme (MAE1) having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:85 or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequence; and (i) acyl-CoA delta-16 desaturase having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:96 or SEQ ID NO:98, or having at least 90% identity to said amino acid sequences.
 9. The fungal cell of claim 8, wherein the proteins are encoded by nucleic acids selected from the group consisting of a nucleic acid having the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:4, 6, 7, 9, 11, 80, 81, 83, 84 86, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102 and 103 or having at least 90% identity to said nucleotide sequence.
 10. The fungal host cell of claim 4, wherein the promoter is a promoter isolated from a gene encoding a protein selected from the group consisting of: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD), acyl-CoA carrier protein (ACP), fatty acid desaturase, translation elongation factor (TEF), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), enolase (2-phosphoglycerate dehydratase) (ENO), peptidylprolyl isomerase (PPI), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and transaldolase.
 11. The fungal host cell of claim 10, wherein the promoter is a promoter sequence selected from the group of promoters set forth in SEQ ID NOs:55-79.
 12. The fungal host cell of claim 10, wherein the promoter is isolated from a species of the Rhodosporidium genera or the Rhodotorula genera.
 13. The fungal host cell of claim 1 wherein the ELO1 or ELO2 genes, set forth in SEQ ID No. 99 and 102, or a nucleic acid having at least 90% identity to the sequences thereof, has been artificially manipulated to have increased or reduced level of fatty acid elongase activity.
 14. A method for producing omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), comprising growing the fungal host cell of claim 1 under conditions suitable to produce PUFAs.
 15. A method for producing triacylglyceride (TAG) comprising growing the fungal host cell of claim 1 under conditions suitable to produce TAG.
 16. The fungal host cell of claim 1, wherein the total fatty acids are composed of at least 24% alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) or gamma-linolenic acid (GLA).
 17. The fungal host cell of claim 1, wherein the total fatty acids are composed of at least 49% alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) or gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). 